INTRODUCTION

Raising the level of satisfaction of students and parents in private schools has become a significant challenge for school administrators, due to the vast and varied competition that drives higher customer expectations (Diaz Rios & Urbano Canal, 2021). It is even more relevant for a private school to build a trusting and long-term relationship with its clients (Encinas Orozco & Cavazos Arroyo, 2016). The need to identify specific marketing strategies is undeniable, as they must move away from the traditional methods used to sell other products or services—especially because the company-customer relationship is typically occasional or of medium duration (Figueroa González et al., 2024).

Faced with an aggressive and competitive environment characterised by uncertainty, complexity, and turbulence, most educational institutions base their strategy for success on internal resources rather than external resources (Encinas Orozco & Cavazos Arroyo, 2016). More specifically, it would be relevant to identify strategies in a private school's internal management that could help generate greater trust and connection with its clients (Soto-Pérez et al., 2020). Such as developing and managing a school's human capital (Núñez-Ríos et al., 2018). In this context, it is interesting to determine which internal human resource management factors promote appropriate marketing strategies for private schools?

Previous studies have supported the relationship between some human resource variables such as commitment, self-efficacy, job satisfaction, job performance and service climate on marketing variables such as customer satisfaction, customer loyalty, customer citizenship behaviour and promoter citizenship behaviour (Chan et al., 2017; Podsakoff et al., 2009; Salanova et al., 2005; Soto & Rojas, 2019). However, none of these previous studies have analysed such relationships from a human resource management and marketing approach in educational institutions. On the other hand, regarding the previously studied human resource variables, job performance has a unique connotation given that the ultimate organisational goal of human resource management is productivity, therefore the job performance variable is important to study in detail from its different domains (Ortiz Soto et al., 2024). It would be novel to relate job performance variable to a variable that indicates customer satisfaction and has a positive effect on advertising or recommending the education service to new and potential customers, i.e. promoter citizenship behaviour.

This study assesses whether the teacher's job performance at a private school influences the level of parents’ word-of-mouth recommendation. Word-of-mouth recommendation is an adequate strategy for an educational institution since it avoids commercialising education (Wardi et al., 2018). Institutions with high academic standards often do not require advertising efforts, as their current clients promote them through word-of-mouth (Diaz Rios & Urbano Canal, 2021; Encinas Orozco & Cavazos Arroyo, 2016). This article proposes to add to the literature an explanation using structural equations by path modelling about whether the variable job performance (analysed for its task performance, organisational citizenship behaviour and orientation toward results dimensions) influences promoter citizenship behaviour. This extends research findings on human capital management in education by looking at possible relationships with other management fields, such as marketing.

The relationship between job performance variables and promoter citizenship behaviour is interpreted in light of social exchange (Chan et al., 2017). This theory is explained through the principle of reciprocity, in which any positive or beneficial action received by a third party creates an obligation to respond in kind (Matrafi, 2024). This means that when parents receive unexpected and extraordinary teacher performance, they may feel compelled—under the principle of reciprocity—to return such benefits, possibly by offering a positive recommendation of their children's school.

LITERATURE REVIEW

This section reviews the literature on task performance, contextual performance, results orientation, and promoter citizenship behaviour to highlight the relevance of the research problem.

Task and contextual performance

Job performance has been conceptualised in two ways: first, task performance (TP) that relates to the responsibilities of the nature of the work itself; second, contextual performance (CP), which refers to behaviours beyond the assigned role that benefit the organisation (Pradhan et al., 2017). Thus, task performance refers to all activities related to formal work and indicates the level of efficiency of an individual in prescribed functions (Podsakoff et al., 2009). Contextual performance is the set of positive activities for the organisation that an employee performs even though it is not in the nature of his or her job, and it is assumed that these actions will not be remunerated (Chan et al., 2017). Contextual performance is also known as organisational citizenship behaviour (Gong et al., 2018).

Task performance differs from contextual performance in at least five aspects. Task performance contributes to the line of business of the organisation, varies depending on the nature of the work, is carried out in exchange for a payment, is defined in job descriptions, and relies on knowledge and skills to be carried out (Yang & Hwang, 2014). Contextual performance supports the work environment; activities are common across different jobs and primarily require employees’ attitudes and dispositions (Gong et al., 2018). Moreover, contextual performance creates an ideal environment for task performance, which suggests that in educational institutions, it can positively influence the quality of the services they provide (Organ, 1997; Srivastava, 2017). Previously, Podsakoff et al. (2009) have proved the positive consequences of contextual performance on efficiency and productivity of both the organisation and the employee. Thus, the first hypothesis to be evaluated in the work is:

H₁. The teachers’ self-perception of their level of contextual performance positively influences their level of task performance.

Orientation toward results

An employee is oriented toward results (OtR) when he or she can persevere and overcome obstacles to achieve objectives consistently (Pradhan et al., 2017). In this way, organisational citizenship behaviour (contextual performance) has been linked to orientation toward results, and it has even been identified as a factor to improve organisational effectiveness (Srivastava, 2017). Schaufeli & Salanova (2007) point out that employees who are oriented toward results tend to focus on organisational success, as well as being better individual performers. Furthermore, other authors affirm that orientation toward results and organisational citizenship behaviour significantly affect organisational effectiveness (Gong et al., 2018; Pradhan et al., 2017).

Although previous studies have linked contextual and task performance with an orientation toward results, this work intends to identify if both relationships exist within the educational environment and, in that case, obtain information on which factor could be more influential in orientation toward results. In that sense, the following hypotheses are stated:

H₂. Teachers’ perception of their contextual performance positively influences their orientation toward results.

H₃. Teachers’ perception of their task performance positively influences their orientation toward results.

Promoter citizenship behaviour

Promoter citizenship behaviour (PCB) refers to the set of unpaid and unsolicited actions that a customer engages on behalf of their supplier, such as making positive word-of-mouth recommendations (Ahamad, 2019). Promoter citizenship behaviour is one of the several dimensions of customer citizenship behaviour, which also includes a) suggestions to improve service, b) supervision of other consumers, c) active voice, d) positive actions for developing the service, e) exhibition of relationships of belonging, f) flexibility and g) participation in business activities (Encinas Orozco & Cavazos Arroyo, 2016).

The Net Promoter Score (NPS), designed by Reichheld (2003),was used to assess promoter citizenship behaviour. Some studies have explained that customer satisfaction positively influences word-of-mouth recommendations (Wardi et al., 2018). The NPS predicts customers' behaviour based on their intentions to recommend a product (González & Garza, 2014). The question developed by Reichheld to predict behaviour was: How likely would you recommend this company to a friend or family member? Although NPS has been rejected as a measure for predicting company performance, it can be used to indicate customer loyalty and satisfaction (González & Garza, 2014).

Previous studies have identified a significant relationship between organisational and promoter citizenship behaviour (Chan et al., 2017; Soto & Rojas, 2019). In contrast, Salanova et al. (2005) found a relationship between the employees' level of commitment and the client's satisfaction. However, from the perspective of educational institutions, the present study aims to explore these relationships further by detailing the different domains of job performance and orientation toward results in their possible influence on promoter citizenship behaviour. Thus, the last hypothesis is:

H₄. Teachers' perceptions of orientation toward results influence the parents' intention to recommend their school (promoter citizenship behaviour).

A diagram of the established research hypotheses is presented in Figure 1, which shows the theoretical model to be evaluated in this study:

Figure 1
Theoretical model to analyse the influence of contextual performance (CP) on promoter citizenship behaviour (PCB), with the mediating variables of task performance (TP) and orientation towards results (OtR).
Source: self-elaboration

METHODOLOGY

Sample and procedure to collect information

The sample was taken from private schools in Guadalajara, Mexico. By purposive sampling, four of the top ten private schools in the state of Jalisco were chosen based on the results of a standardised national test of 2015 (Suryananda & Yudhawati, 2021). All the schools offered the same educational levels: elementary, middle, high school and sports. Each level was considered to measure the opinions of parents and teachers. Four private schools were analysed, encompassing 16 educational levels (4 sections by four schools). The combined population of these schools was approximately 1,200 families and 156 full-time teachers.

Two instruments were applied, one designed for teachers and the other for parents. The teacher surveys were administered at the beginning of an academic meeting, for which access was granted specifically for this purpose. Of the 156 teachers in these four schools, only 147 completed and valid questionnaires were collected (94% response rate). Following the recommendation of Hair et al. (2019) to achieve at least 100 observations, the sample size obtained is considered adequate. Twenty-seven per cent of the sample were women, with an average of 16 years of teaching experience and an average age of 41. Regarding the section they taught, 12% were from sports, 32% from elementary, 34% from middle and 21% from high school. The survey for parents was sent in an envelope in the children's backpacks, asking them to return them at their earliest convenience. 302 responses of parents were obtained (25% response rate).

Measurement instrument

The instrument applied in this study is based on scales and instruments documented in the literature pertaining to each of the four variables. The ranges to measure the variables included a Likert scale of five positions from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (completely agree). Once the instrument was applied and statistically analysed, those questions in which the factorial loading did not reach a minimum of 0.7 were eliminated. Thus, the teacher’s instrument was reduced from 16 to 10 questions.

Six items were taken from the Role-Based Performance Scale used and validated by Yang and Hwang (2014) to assess teachers' tasks and contextual performance. In this study, three items were used to measure task performance and three items to measure contextual performance. Orientation toward results was evaluated through three items from the Service Orientation scale proposed and validated by Hogan et al. (1984). Promoter citizenship behaviour was evaluated with the Net Promoter Score question (Reichheld, 2003). Unlike the methodology of the NPS, this study did not calculate the net rate of promoters but rather to obtain an average value per school section on a rating scale from 1 (very unlikely) to 5 (very likely). The complete set of questions is shown in Table 1.

Data Analysis

The structural equation modelling was conducted using PLS-PM approach. This multivariate statistical technique identifies significant relationships between constructs. In addition, PLS-PM approach does not require the data to follow a specific distribution (Hair et al., 2019). When evaluating the model in Figure 1 using PLS-PM, the analysis is divided in two parts: the measurement model and the structural models. The measurement model consists of the set of indicators that reflect a construct's variations that are not directly observable. In contrast, the structural model comprises constructs and their relationships (López-Hernández et al., 2022).

The procedure for assessing the model followed these steps: First, the measurement model, the reliability of the indicators and constructs must be assessed, as well as the convergent and discriminant validity of the indicators (Hair et al., 2019). Next, the structural model was examined by reviewing the R² coefficients and the redundancy index (Soto-Pérez et al., 2020). Finally, the model's overall quality was assessed by calculating the goodness of fit, bootstrapping analysis, the effect size of significant relationships and the analysis of direct and indirect effects (Núñez-Ríos et al., 2022).

DISCUSSION

The first hypothesis tested in the model is whether organisational citizenship behaviour influences task performance. This relationship was demonstrated in the present model (accepting hypothesis H₁), ratifying previous studies (Soto & Rojas, 2019; Soto-Pérez et al., 2020). The effect size from organisational citizenship behaviour to task performance was large, for the present study. This relationship may have its origin in that organisational citizenship behaviour contributes to creating a positive work environment to facilitate performance. Some OCBs that facilitate TP may be helping co-workers, accepting improvement cues from superiors, supporting activities beyond those initially assigned and maintaining workplace cleanliness (Ortiz Soto et al., 2024). Every employee will develop his or her potential better in a harmonious environment than in one where there is little cooperation between colleagues and civic values are undervalued. This relationship within the educational environment is indispensable, even more so in private schools, given that there is an extremely interesting and delicate binomial in private education. This binomial is on the one hand that the student is a person to be educated through academic demands, but on the other hand, is a client who must be satisfied by the service for which he or she pays. When a teacher pretends to fulfil only the formally required duties, it will be difficult for him/her to educate a person and even more difficult for him/her to be willing to satisfy his/her pupil as a client. It is only from the perspective of performing beyond what is formally required that a teacher can fulfil his or her educational function at a private school.

The following hypotheses focused on the influence of organisational citizenship behaviour (H₂) and task performance (H₃) on the orientation toward results variable. In contrast to Boyatzis (2008), who did not consider an interaction between these variables, in the present study, a positive and significant relationship was found between organisational citizenship behaviour and orientation toward results, as well as between task performance and orientation toward results. However, the independent variable, organisational citizenship behaviour, has a greater influence on orientation toward results, contrary to what might have been expected, since a higher level of task performance should have a stronger influence on orientation toward results. This would imply that in order to improve teachers' orientation toward results, the priority would be to increase organisational citizenship behaviour as this in turn promotes a work environment of cordiality, respect, and support among colleagues, which could in turn increase the company's productivity through task performance and orientation toward results (Orozco Arias & Anzola Morales, 2023). Orientation toward results is an interesting attitude for school institution management because it can imply that a teacher seeks to ensure that his or her teaching strategies translate into concrete learning for students and that the teacher assumes that his or her job is not only education but also the satisfaction of customers who are paying for a service (Diaz Rios & Urbano Canal, 2021).

The fourth hypothesis (H₄) examines whether orientation toward results influences parents' and teachers' intention to recommend their school. Reichheld (2003) stated that the Net Promoter Score question predicts customer behaviour, which is supported by the theory of planned behaviour. This free recommendation by consumers and teachers in favour of their school to third parties has previously been referred to as promoter citizenship behaviour (Soto & Rojas, 2019), deriving from one of the dimensions of customer citizenship behaviour. Based on the results of this study, contextual performance positively influences perceptions of task performance, and both variables influence orientation toward results. This variable has a positive relationship with the word-of-mouth recommendation intention of parents and teachers to their family and friends (H4). This idea of predicting customer citizenship behaviour from employee citizenship behaviour is not often addressed, especially in the school setting, where the nature of these selfless behaviours is ideal for education.

Contrasting these results with previous studies, Salanova et al. (2005) identified a relationship between employee commitment and customer satisfaction. Their study concluded that organisational resources and employee commitment predict service climate, which in turn predicts employee performance and ultimately customer loyalty. However, in contrast to the proposal by Salanova et al. (2005), the study presented here takes an approach that relates word-of-mouth recommendations from teachers and parents positively influenced by the different domains that job performance may involve (organisational citizenship behaviour, task performance, orientation toward results). Moreover, in an aggressive and competitive environment, educational institutions should rely on internal rather than external resources (Figueroa González et al., 2024). On the other hand, Chan et al. (2017) presented a study that relates the civic virtue of employees and customers, although not in the educational setting. In a study by Chan et al (2017) study, employee citizenship behaviours were related to consumer citizenship behaviours with service climate as a mediating variable. However, in the present study, teacher and client citizenship behaviours were related through task performance and orientation toward results.

CONCLUSIONS

Organisational citizenship behaviour or contextual performance implies a performance beyond the call of duty. According to the statistical results of this study, this behaviour incentivises task performance and guides employees to work toward goals. Managing a school with this profile of collaborators must be a standard pursued by some managers of educational institutions. It is important to remember that the task of educating, by nature, entails fulfilling beyond the responsibilities that can be traditionally identified as teaching a lesson, transmitting knowledge, or presenting a topic. A teacher's responsibility is to ensure the learning and development of their students. Therefore, it is relevant to study citizenship behaviour in the educational field. If we shift the focus from personnel management to marketing strategies in a private education institution, citizenship behaviours fit appropriately again. Since getting a school to be recommended by its customers is the appropriate marketing strategy, it is transmitted with the greatest confidence and the least utilitarian intention on the part of the school, since a school that fulfils its academic duty should not need advertising, so the recommendation of its users would be enough.

Practical and theoretical implications

Regarding its practical implications, this model offers an interesting perspective on citizenship behaviours since it involves teachers and parents. This path begins in personnel management and influences the development of marketing strategies. Specifically, this model encourages promoter citizenship behaviours, so school administrators seeking recommendations between customers should focus on helping their institution's employees develop organisational civic behaviours. This behaviour is extremely interesting for educational institutions for the reasons outlined above. The benefits of these citizenship behaviours may be useful for managers of various services beyond education.

About the theoretical implications, this model is based on social exchange theory; however, it is striking how this theory can work beyond the organisation, impacting customers. Social exchange theory explains why, when a person or organisation receives actions or objects in their favour, they feel obliged to respond in kind by returning the favour. In this case, the extraordinary work a parent receives from teachers may influence the parent to return a favour to the institution by recommending it to their family and friends.

Limitations and future directions for research

This study presents some methodological limitations, so the results should be viewed cautiously. The methodological limitations include the lack of randomness in the data collection, the social desirability of teachers' responses regarding their own performance, and the possible influence of contextual variables not considered in the model.

Future research recommendations include adding variables such as personality traits, job satisfaction, teacher self-efficacy, and commitment. Also, identifying variables that can establish significant relationships between organisational citizenship behaviour and customer citizenship behaviour would allow for a more in-depth understanding of their causes and benefits. Future research should also consider methods that combine behavioural and attitudinal measures.

RESULTS

The following quantitative analysis aims to validate the hypotheses in the model proposed in Figure 1. The analysis has three sections: the analysis of the measurement model, the analysis of the structural model and the overall quality of the model.

Analysis of the measurement model

First, the reliability of the indicators is assessed using factorial loadings. The squared factor loadings show the amount of variance of the indicator that is explained by its construct or latent variable. In all cases, a minimum level of 50% of variance explained must be reached, i.e. when the factor loadings are higher than 0.7 (Hair et al., 2019). Figure 2 shows that factor loadings are higher than 0.7 for all items.

Figure 2
Factor loadings greater than 0.7 for each indicator.
Notes: Abbreviations correspond to the following: contextual performance (CP) on promoter citizenship behaviour (PCB), with the mediating variables of task performance (TP) and orientation towards results (OtR).

The reliability of a construct is a measure that identifies whether re-applying the same indicators would yield the same results (Hair et al., 2019). It can be assessed by Cronbach's alpha (α) and DG rho (ρ), these measures identify whether the different indicators correlate with each other in an acceptable way to measure a single construct (Núñez-Ríos et al., 2022). The construct is considered to have the necessary internal consistency when the calculated α and ρ values are greater than 0.7(López-Hernández et al., 2022). Table 2 shows that the variables task performance, orientation toward results, and promoter citizenship behaviour comply with these limits, so they are considered to meet the necessary reliability and consistency. However, for the variable contextual performance (CP) the α value is below 0.7. Nevertheless, from a broader perspective, the ρ value - considered a more robust measure – exceed 0.7, which supports the assumption of reliability for the CP variable.

In the third step of the analysis of the measurement model, convergent validity will be assessed, indicating whether there is consistency in the construct with what it should measure (Soto-Pérez et al., 2020). Convergent validity will exist if the AVE values for each construct are higher than 0.5 (Hair et al., 2019). This threshold is reached in all cases as shown in Table 2. In Table 2, it is also possible to identify the discriminant validity, a measure that enables us to determine whether each construct does not measure what is not intended to measure. (Núñez-Ríos et al., 2022). The way to assess it is through the ranges of factor loadings [λ] and the ranges of cross-factor loadings [C-λ]; these ranges should not overlap, so that the indicators have higher loadings on their own construct than when they are assessed on other constructs (López-Hernández et al., 2022). Discriminant validity is achieved in this study (see Table 2).

Analysis of the structural model

The coefficient of determination R² represents the proportion of variance of each dependent (or endogenous) variable explained by its independent (or exogenous) variables. Table 2 shows the corresponding values for this model. For the endogenous variables, contextual performance and orientation toward results, the calculated R² values indicate a moderate level of variance, as explained by the exogenous variables. For the endogenous variable - promoter citizenship behaviour - the R² level is low. Concerning redundancy, Table 2 also shows the values of the endogenous variables. The redundancy index is higher than 0 in all cases, supporting the predictive relevance of the model.

Based on the proposed structural model, Figure 3 shows the coefficient paths from the exogenous variables to the endogenous ones (already standardised).

Figure 3
Structural model for the present research and its coefficients for each path. Notes: Abbreviations correspond to the following: contextual performance (CP) on promoter citizenship behaviour (PCB), with the mediating variables of task performance (TP) and orientation towards results (OtR).
Source: self-elaboration.

Overall quality of the model

The first step in assessing the overall quality of the model - depicted in Figure 3 - is to determine the significance of the coefficients of each relationship. This was assessed using p-values and bootstrapping analysis. Table 3 shows whether the relationships are significant to support the hypotheses proposed according to t-values and p-values.

Regarding the bootstrapping analysis with a resampling configuration of 1,000 and a significance level of 5%, the coefficients of all paths were also found to be significant, as they did not include 0, as shown in Table 3 (López-Hernández et al., 2022). Therefore, all four hypotheses are accepted.

Following the procedure suggested by Sanchez (2013) in his plspm package for R, the goodness-of-fit calculated for the present model was GoF = 0.3890, indicating that the model’s predictive ability is 38.90%. Also, the effect sizes of each path coefficients were calculated by Cohen's f²(Samartha & Kodikal, 2018). If the f² values are less than or equal to 0.15 it is considered a low effect of the exogenous constructs on the endogenous ones; if the f² values are greater than 0.15 and less than or equal to 0.35, the effect size will be medium. And, if the f² value is greater than 0.35 the effect will be large. The effects of the relationships of contextual performance on orientation toward results, task performance on orientation toward results and orientation toward results on promoter citizenship behaviour are low, as shown in Table 3. In contrast, the effect size of the relationship between contextual performance and task performance is large.

Finally, to evaluate the overall quality of the model, an analysis of the direct and indirect effects of the model (Figure 3) is shown in Table 4. In this table, one relationship that should be particularly noted is that of CP -> PCB. Although the model does not propose a direct relationship, it is possible to identify an indirect effect of 0.14. The importance of this relationship lies in the ability to analyse and contrast the citizenship behaviour of employees and clients, and to identify how in this case it is a positive relationship, so the higher the level of organisational citizenship behaviour on the part of employees, the higher the level of citizenship behaviour on the part of clients.

DISCUSSION

The first hypothesis tested in the model is whether organisational citizenship behaviour influences task performance. This relationship was demonstrated in the present model (accepting hypothesis H₁), ratifying previous studies (Soto & Rojas, 2019; Soto-Pérez et al., 2020). The effect size from organisational citizenship behaviour to task performance was large, for the present study. This relationship may have its origin in that organisational citizenship behaviour contributes to creating a positive work environment to facilitate performance. Some OCBs that facilitate TP may be helping co-workers, accepting improvement cues from superiors, supporting activities beyond those initially assigned and maintaining workplace cleanliness (Ortiz Soto et al., 2024). Every employee will develop his or her potential better in a harmonious environment than in one where there is little cooperation between colleagues and civic values are undervalued. This relationship within the educational environment is indispensable, even more so in private schools, given that there is an extremely interesting and delicate binomial in private education. This binomial is on the one hand that the student is a person to be educated through academic demands, but on the other hand, is a client who must be satisfied by the service for which he or she pays. When a teacher pretends to fulfil only the formally required duties, it will be difficult for him/her to educate a person and even more difficult for him/her to be willing to satisfy his/her pupil as a client. It is only from the perspective of performing beyond what is formally required that a teacher can fulfil his or her educational function at a private school.

The following hypotheses focused on the influence of organisational citizenship behaviour (H₂) and task performance (H₃) on the orientation toward results variable. In contrast to Boyatzis (2008), who did not consider an interaction between these variables, in the present study, a positive and significant relationship was found between organisational citizenship behaviour and orientation toward results, as well as between task performance and orientation toward results. However, the independent variable, organisational citizenship behaviour, has a greater influence on orientation toward results, contrary to what might have been expected, since a higher level of task performance should have a stronger influence on orientation toward results. This would imply that in order to improve teachers' orientation toward results, the priority would be to increase organisational citizenship behaviour as this in turn promotes a work environment of cordiality, respect, and support among colleagues, which could in turn increase the company's productivity through task performance and orientation toward results (Orozco Arias & Anzola Morales, 2023). Orientation toward results is an interesting attitude for school institution management because it can imply that a teacher seeks to ensure that his or her teaching strategies translate into concrete learning for students and that the teacher assumes that his or her job is not only education but also the satisfaction of customers who are paying for a service (Diaz Rios & Urbano Canal, 2021).

The fourth hypothesis (H₄) examines whether orientation toward results influences parents' and teachers' intention to recommend their school. Reichheld (2003) stated that the Net Promoter Score question predicts customer behaviour, which is supported by the theory of planned behaviour. This free recommendation by consumers and teachers in favour of their school to third parties has previously been referred to as promoter citizenship behaviour (Soto & Rojas, 2019), deriving from one of the dimensions of customer citizenship behaviour. Based on the results of this study, contextual performance positively influences perceptions of task performance, and both variables influence orientation toward results. This variable has a positive relationship with the word-of-mouth recommendation intention of parents and teachers to their family and friends (H4). This idea of predicting customer citizenship behaviour from employee citizenship behaviour is not often addressed, especially in the school setting, where the nature of these selfless behaviours is ideal for education.

Contrasting these results with previous studies, Salanova et al. (2005) identified a relationship between employee commitment and customer satisfaction. Their study concluded that organisational resources and employee commitment predict service climate, which in turn predicts employee performance and ultimately customer loyalty. However, in contrast to the proposal by Salanova et al. (2005), the study presented here takes an approach that relates word-of-mouth recommendations from teachers and parents positively influenced by the different domains that job performance may involve (organisational citizenship behaviour, task performance, orientation toward results). Moreover, in an aggressive and competitive environment, educational institutions should rely on internal rather than external resources (Figueroa González et al., 2024). On the other hand, Chan et al. (2017) presented a study that relates the civic virtue of employees and customers, although not in the educational setting. In a study by Chan et al (2017) study, employee citizenship behaviours were related to consumer citizenship behaviours with service climate as a mediating variable. However, in the present study, teacher and client citizenship behaviours were related through task performance and orientation toward results.

CONCLUSIONS

Organisational citizenship behaviour or contextual performance implies a performance beyond the call of duty. According to the statistical results of this study, this behaviour incentivises task performance and guides employees to work toward goals. Managing a school with this profile of collaborators must be a standard pursued by some managers of educational institutions. It is important to remember that the task of educating, by nature, entails fulfilling beyond the responsibilities that can be traditionally identified as teaching a lesson, transmitting knowledge, or presenting a topic. A teacher's responsibility is to ensure the learning and development of their students. Therefore, it is relevant to study citizenship behaviour in the educational field. If we shift the focus from personnel management to marketing strategies in a private education institution, citizenship behaviours fit appropriately again. Since getting a school to be recommended by its customers is the appropriate marketing strategy, it is transmitted with the greatest confidence and the least utilitarian intention on the part of the school, since a school that fulfils its academic duty should not need advertising, so the recommendation of its users would be enough.

Practical and theoretical implications

Regarding its practical implications, this model offers an interesting perspective on citizenship behaviours since it involves teachers and parents. This path begins in personnel management and influences the development of marketing strategies. Specifically, this model encourages promoter citizenship behaviours, so school administrators seeking recommendations between customers should focus on helping their institution's employees develop organisational civic behaviours. This behaviour is extremely interesting for educational institutions for the reasons outlined above. The benefits of these citizenship behaviours may be useful for managers of various services beyond education.

About the theoretical implications, this model is based on social exchange theory; however, it is striking how this theory can work beyond the organisation, impacting customers. Social exchange theory explains why, when a person or organisation receives actions or objects in their favour, they feel obliged to respond in kind by returning the favour. In this case, the extraordinary work a parent receives from teachers may influence the parent to return a favour to the institution by recommending it to their family and friends.

Limitations and future directions for research

This study presents some methodological limitations, so the results should be viewed cautiously. The methodological limitations include the lack of randomness in the data collection, the social desirability of teachers' responses regarding their own performance, and the possible influence of contextual variables not considered in the model.

Future research recommendations include adding variables such as personality traits, job satisfaction, teacher self-efficacy, and commitment. Also, identifying variables that can establish significant relationships between organisational citizenship behaviour and customer citizenship behaviour would allow for a more in-depth understanding of their causes and benefits. Future research should also consider methods that combine behavioural and attitudinal measures.

REFERENCES

Ahamad, F. (2019). Impact of word-of-mouth, job attributes and relationship strength on employer attractiveness. Management Research Review, 42(6), 721-739. https://doi.org/10.1108/MRR-11-2017-0382

Boyatzis, R. E. (2008). Leadership development from a complexity perspective. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 60(4), 298–313. https://doi.org/10.1037/1065-9293.60.4.298

Chan, K. W., Gong, T., Zhang, R., & Zhou, M. (2017). Do Employee Citizenship Behaviors Lead to Customer Citizenship Behaviors? The Roles of Dual Identification and Service Climate. Journal of Service Research, 20(3), 259-274. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094670517706159

Diaz Rios, C., & Urbano Canal, N. (2021). Publicly subsidized private schools in developing countries: Lessons from Colombia. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 29, 34. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.29.5647

Encinas Orozco, F. C., & Cavazos Arroyo, J. (2016). Validación de la escala de comportamiento ciudadano de consumidores de servicios educativos. Contaduría y Administración, 61(4), 649–665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cya.2016.03.001

Figueroa González, E. G., Tortolero Portugal, R., Herrera Soto, M., & Sotelo Asef, J. G. (2024). Management of human talent and work performance of administrative staff in academia. RAN - Revistas Academia & Negocios, 10(2), 210–221. https://doi.org/10.29393/RAN10-13GTER40013

Gong, B., Greenwood, R. A., Hoyte, D., Ramkissoon, A., & He, X. (2018). Millennials and organizational citizenship behavior: The role of job crafting and career anchor on service. Management Research Review, 41(7), 774-788. https://doi.org/10.1108/MRR-05-2016-0121

González, E., & Garza, J. (2014). Índice de Promotor Neto y su relación con la satisfacción del cliente y la lealtad. Revista Electrónica Nova Scientia - Revista de Investigación de La Universidad de La Salle Bajio, 7(13), 411–437. https://doi.org/2007 - 0705

Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2019). Multivariate data analysis (8th edition). Cengage Learning.

Hogan, J., Hogan, R., & Busch, C. M. (1984). How to Measure Service Orientation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69(I), 167–173. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.69.1.167

López-Hernández, C., Lizarraga-Álvarez, G. I., & Soto-Pérez, M. (2022). Enhancing learning of accounting principles through experiential learning in a board game. Accounting Education, 32(3), 300-331. https://doi.org/10.1080/09639284.2022.2059770

Matrafi, M. (2024). The Impact of Social Exchange Theory on Employee Motivation and Job Satisfaction. International Journal of Management (IJM), 15(4), 130–136. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13305487

Núñez-Ríos, J. E., Sánchez-García, J. Y., Soto-Pérez, M., Olivares-Benitez, E., & Rojas, O. G. (2022). Components to foster organizational resilience in tourism SMEs. Business Process Management Journal, 28(1), 208-235. https://doi.org/10.1108/BPMJ-12-2020-0580

Núñez-Ríos, J. E., Sánchez-García, J. Y., Tejeida-Padilla, R., & Soto-Pérez, M. (2018). A systems science approach to structure human capital management in Mexican lodging SMEs. International Journal of Applied Systemic Studies, 8(4), 279-299. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJASS.2018.103761

Organ, D. W. (1997). Organizational citizenship behavior: It's construct clean-up time. Human Performance, 119(4), 1129-1153. https://doi.org/10.1093/ahr/119.4.1129

Orozco Arias, J. I., & Anzola Morales, O. L. (2023). Organizational Culture for Innovation: A Case Study Involving an University Faculty. Journal of the Knowledge Economy, 14(4), 4675-4706. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-022-01069-9

Ortiz Soto, M., Larregui Candelaria, G., & Rivera Ortiz, J. G. (2024). Factores que impactan el desempeño laboral: Estudio sobre la adaptabilidad al teletrabajo inducido por el evento del COVID-19. RAN - Revistas Academia & Negocios, 10(1), 121–144. https://doi.org/10.29393/RAN10-9FIMJ30009

Podsakoff, N. P., Whiting, S. W., Podsakoff, P. M., & Blume, B. D. (2009). Individual- and Organizational-Level Consequences of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(1), 122–141. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013079

Pradhan, R. K., Kumari, I. G., & Kumar, U. (2017). Human resource flexibility and organisational effectiveness: mediating role of organisational citizenship behaviour. International Journal of Human Resources Development and Management, 17(3/4), 282-300. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJHRDM.2017.087125

Reichheld, F. F. (2003). The One Number You Need to Grow. Harvard Business Review, 81(12), 46-55.

Salanova, M., Agut, S., & Peiró, J. M. (2005). Linking organizational resources and work engagement to employee performance and customer loyalty: the mediation of service climate. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(6), 1217–1227. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.6.1217

Samartha, V., & Kodikal, R. (2018). Measuring the Effect Size of Coefficient of Determination and Predictive Relevance of Exogenous Latent Variables on Endogenous Latent Variables through PLS-SEM. International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, 119(18), 39-48. https://acadpubl.eu/hub/2018-119-18/1/4.pdf

Sanchez, G. (2013). PLS Path Modeling with R. Berkley: Trowchez Editions. http://gastonsanchez.com/PLS_Path_Modeling_with_R.pdf

Schaufeli, W. B., & Salanova, M. (2007). Efficacy or inefficacy, that's the question: Burnout and work engagement, and their relationships with efficacy beliefs. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 20(2), 177–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800701217878

Soto, M., & Rojas, O. (2019). Self-efficacy and job satisfaction as antecedents of citizenship behaviour in private schools. International Journal of Management in Education, 13(1), 82. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMIE.2019.096472

Soto-Pérez, M., Sánchez-García, J. Y., & Núñez-Ríos, J. E. (2020). Factors to improve job performance and school effectiveness. International Journal of Educational Management, 34(5), 805–822. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-07-2019-0237

Srivastava, A. P. (2017). Teachers' extra role behaviour: relation with self-efficacy, procedural justice, organisational commitment and support for training. International Journal of Management in Education, 11(2), 140. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMIE.2017.10002822

Suryananda, T. D., & Yudhawati, R. (2021). Association of serum KL-6 levels on COVID-19 severity: A cross-sectional study design with purposive sampling. Annals of Medicine and Surgery, 69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amsu.2021.102673

Wardi, Y., Abror, A., & Trinanda, O. (2018). Halal tourism: antecedent of tourist's satisfaction and word of mouth (WOM). Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 23(5), 463–472. https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2018.1466816

Yang, C., & Hwang, M. (2014). Personality traits and simultaneous reciprocal influences between job performance and job satisfaction. Chinese Management Studies, 8(1), 6–26. https://doi.org/10.1108/CMS-09-2011-0079

Notes

Información adicional

redalyc-journal-id: 5608